Pharmacology

Acid-base Balance Our body maintains a balance between acids and bases to keep our blood pH within a normal range. The normal pH range of human blood is between 7.35 and 7.45. Any imbalance in this range can lead to acidosis or alkalosis. pH scale Acidosis is a condition in which the pH of blood drops below 7.35. This happens when the body produces excess acid or when the kidneys and lungs are not able to remove enough acid from the body. Some of the common causes of acidosis include uncontrolled diabetes , kidney failure , alcoholism , and severe dehydration . On the other hand, alkalosis is a condition in which the pH of blood rises above 7.45. This happens when the body produces excess base or when there is not enough acid in the body. The common causes of alkalosis include prolonged vomiting , use of diuretics , and hyperventilation . Overview of acid-base balance in the body Acid-base balance is the maintenance of the hydrogen ion concentration ([H+]) in body fluids wit

Pathophysiology refers to the study of the functional changes that occur in the body as a result of a disease or injury. It is an essential area of study that provides insights into the mechanisms of diseases and helps in the development of effective treatments . The field of pathophysiology involves understanding the complex interplay of various biological systems, including the cardiovascular, respiratory, nervous, and immune systems, and how they are affected by diseases and injuries. It also involves the study of biochemical and molecular changes that occur within cells and tissues. Pathophysiological Changes   For example, in the case of cardiovascular disease, pathophysiology involves understanding how factors such as high blood pressure, high cholesterol levels, and smoking can damage the heart and blood vessels. Similarly, in the case of respiratory diseases like asthma, pathophysiology involves understanding the underlying mechanisms of airway inflammation and narrowing tha

Before beginning, basic information about cell structure could be refreshed here Cell Injury Cell injury refers to the disruption of normal cellular structure and function due to various factors such as physical, chemical, biological, or genetic insults .  Physical injury : Trauma or mechanical damage to cells, such as from cuts, burns, or blunt force, can cause cell membrane rupture, organelle damage, and disruption of cellular function. Chemical injury : Exposure to toxic chemicals, drugs, or environmental pollutants can lead to cellular damage and functional impairment. For example, alcohol-induced liver injury, drug-induced kidney injury, or chemical burns on the skin. Infectious injury : Invasion of cells by pathogens, such as bacteria, viruses, or parasites, can cause cellular damage through various mechanisms, such as direct cell destruction, inflammation, or immune response-mediated injury. Radiation injury : Exposure to ionizing radiation, such as from X-rays or radioactive s