Pharmacy Notes | Pharmacology | Anatomy Physiology | Exam Revison

A compound microscope is regarded as one of the common microscopes that may be utilized for a variety of applications.  The compound microscope (having two sets of lenses) generates a two-dimensional image of the specimen. The compound microscope is also known as a bright-field microscope because light flows straight through the two lenses from the light source to the eye. The area of view is highly lit by this process.  It is frequently used in laboratories to examine specimens. Fig. 1 The Compound Microscope The compound microscope uses two different kinds of lenses. The objective lens is positioned near the thing to be inspected. The eyepiece allows you to see the image. The eyepiece is often referred to as the ocular lens . Principle of Working The light is forced through the thin transparent item. The objective lens captures a magnified view of the item. The captured view is the real image. The real image is then further magnified by the eyepiece or ocular lens and seen...

Routes of Drug Administration The purpose of the administration of the drug is to make it available at its site of action. A drug must be either inserted into the body or applied to the body. There are several routes of drug administration that are broadly divided into two categories Local routes Systemic routes Local routes  When the site of the action is directly accessible, the drug could be applied directly. For example, topical application of an antibiotic cream at the site of the injury for preventing the infection of the wound.  Advantages of local routes are A high concentration of the drug is attained at the desired site without exposing the rest of the body to the drug. Minimal or absence of systemic side effects or toxicities. The local routes are:  a.) Topical route: The drug is directly applied at the desired site of action. It includes application to localized lesions on the skin, mucous membrane, bronchi, eyes, ear canal, anal canal, or vagina.  b.) D...

Welcome to the fascinating world of Pharmacology! Are you ready to embark on a journey of discovery, where we unravel the mysteries of how drugs interact with our bodies to treat diseases, alleviate symptoms, and improve our health and well-being?  Get ready to dive into a world of wonder, where science meets medicine, and where the possibilities are endless! Pharmacology Pharmacology is the science that studies how drugs work, from their discovery and development to their effects on living organisms. It's a multidisciplinary field that combines elements of biology, chemistry, physiology, and clinical medicine to understand how drugs interact with the body at the molecular, cellular, and systemic levels. Imagine unlocking the secrets of how a tiny pill can target specific cells in our body, altering their function and providing relief from pain, inflammation, or infection. Think about how drugs can be formulated in various forms, from tablets and injections to creams and patches, a...

If you want to read about the introduction of the endocrine system , follow the link  http://dpsru.blogspot.com/2021/07/endocrine-system-introduction.html Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland The hypothalamus , a small area below the thalamus, is the master gland and is a major link between nervous and endocrine systems. Cells in the hypothalamus produce at least nine different hormones. The pituitary gland is a pea-shaped structure having a diameter of 1–1.5 cm and is located in the hypophyseal fossa of the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone . The pituitary gland is attached to the hypothalamus through a stalk called the infundibulum . The pituitary gland has two separate lobes called Anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis) Posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis) The anterior pituitary constitutes the 75% weight of the pituitary gland and is made up of epithelial tissue. The anterior pituitary has two parts in adults: The pars distalis is the larger portion.  The pars tuberalis for...

Fig. 1: Endocrine Glands Neuroendocrine System : The nervous and endocrine systems coordinate together to maintain the homeostasis of the body.  Table 1: Comparison of the functioning of the nervous system and the endocrine system. A few of the mediators can act as both neurotransmitters and hormones. For example, norepinephrine is released as a neurotransmitter by sympathetic postganglionic neurons and as a hormone by chromaffin cells of the adrenal medullae.  A certain part of the nervous system regulates the working of the endocrine system.  The body contains two kinds of glands:  Exocrine glands  Endocrine glands  Exocrine glands secrete their products into ducts that carry the secretions to the target site. For example sudoriferous (sweat), sebaceous (oil), mucous , and digestive glands .  Endocrine glands release their products ( hormones ) into the interstitial fluid around the glands. The hormone diffuses into the blood capillaries from the i...

The digestive system is a group of organs that break down food (physically and chemically) so that it can be used by the body cells. Fig. 1: The digestive system The organs of the digestive system can be broadly divided into two: Gastrointestinal (GI) tract or alimentary canal  Accessory digestive organs

Spinal Cord The spinal cord constitutes the central nervous system (CNS) along with the brain. Terminologies Nerve : A group of neurons outside the CNS Tract : A group of neurons within the CNS Protections to the spinal cord As we know that CNS is a delicate system, therefore considerable protections are available to the spinal cord: Vertebral Column Meninges Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) Vertebral column The spinal cord is protected by the vertebral column. The spinal cord is positioned in the vertebral canal (made by stacking vertebral foramina). 7 cervical vertebrae (cervic- = neck) in the neck region. 12 thoracic vertebrae (thorax = chest) posterior to the thoracic cavity. 5 lumbar vertebrae (lumb- = loin) supporting the lower back. 1 sacrum (SA-krum = sacred bone) consisting of five fused sacral vertebrae. 1 coccyx (KOK-siks = cuckoo) having four fused coccygeal vertebrae (kok-SIJ-ē-al). Meninges Three layers of connective tissue cover the CNS and protect ...