Pharmacology

Inflammation Inflammation is a complex biological response that occurs in the body as a defense mechanism against various harmful stimuli, such as pathogens (bacteria, viruses, fungi), tissue injury, toxins, and foreign substances. It is a crucial part of the body's innate immune response, which provides the first line of defense against potential threats. Inflammation can be defined as a localized, protective response of tissues to harmful stimuli. It involves a series of coordinated events and interactions among immune cells, blood vessels, and molecular mediators that aim  To eliminate the source of injury or infection To remove damaged tissue To initiate the process of tissue repair and healing Role in the Body's Defense Mechanisms The role of inflammation in the body's defense mechanisms is multifaceted and serves several essential functions: 1. Detection and Containment of Harmful Agents When tissues are exposed to pathogens or injury, immune cells such as macrophages

Aim: To study of effect of hepatic microsomal enzyme inducers on the phenobarbitone sleeping time in mice. Principle Hypnosis is a natural sleep process, and substances or medications that induce it are referred to as hypnotic agents. While this concept primarily applies to human patients, in animal experiments, the term "hypnotic" is used to describe a deeper stage of central depression that leads to unconsciousness, accompanied by the loss of righting reflexes and muscle tone.  The term "loss of righting reflex" is commonly used to describe the animal's state of "sleep," characterized by the inability to correct its posture when placed on its back. Normally, animals instinctively turn their bodies so that their paws or feet are positioned towards the ground—an action known as the righting reflex. The righting reflex relies on the proper functioning of the vestibular, visual, and proprioceptive systems.  Materials and Methods Materials Animal/species

Epilepsy Epilepsy is a neurological disorder characterized by recurring seizures, which are episodes of abnormal electrical activity in the brain. It affects people of all ages and can have various underlying causes. Epilepsy is a chronic condition that requires ongoing management and treatment. Classification of Epilepsy Epilepsy can be classified into different types based on various factors, including the seizure type, location in the brain where seizures originate, and underlying causes. The International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE) provides a widely used classification system known as the ILAE Classification of Seizures and Epilepsies. 1. Generalized Epilepsy Generalized Seizures: Seizures that involve both sides of the brain from the onset. They can be further classified into different subtypes, including: Absence seizures: Brief loss of consciousness, often accompanied by subtle body movements. Absence seizures Tonic-clonic seizures: Characterized by muscle stiffness (toni

Sedatives and Hypnotics Introduction Sedatives and hypnotics are medications that act on the central nervous system (CNS) to induce relaxation, reduce anxiety, promote sleep, or produce a hypnotic state. Sedatives have a calming effect, while hypnotics induce and maintain sleep. These drugs can help manage insomnia, anxiety disorders, and certain medical procedures requiring sedation. Pharmacology of Sedative-Hypnotic Drugs Mechanism of Action Sedative-hypnotic drugs enhance the activity of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), an inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS. They bind to  GABA A receptors, increasing the influx of chloride ions into neurons, leading to neuronal hyperpolarization and suppression of neuronal activity. Fig GABAergic neurotransmission Fig Hyperpolarization Sedatives and hypnotic drugs can be classified into different categories based on their chemical structure and pharmacological properties. Here is a classification of commonly used sedatives and hypnotics 1. Benzod

Overview of General Anesthetics Definition and Purpose of General Anesthesia General anesthesia is a state of reversible unconsciousness and loss of sensation induced by the administration of certain medications, known as general anesthetics. Its purpose is to allow surgical procedures to be performed without pain, discomfort, or awareness for the patient.  General anesthesia encompasses three key components:  Unconsciousness Analgesia (pain relief) Muscle relaxation Historical Background and Development of General Anesthetics The history of general anesthesia dates back to the 19th century when significant advancements were made in the field of surgery. In 1846, the first successful use of ether as a general anesthetic was demonstrated by William T.G. Morton. This breakthrough revolutionized surgical practice and laid the foundation for the development of various general anesthetics over the years. Since then, several other general anesthetics have been discovered and refined, includi

Neurohumoral Transmission Neurohumoral transmission refers to the communication between nerve cells (neurons) in the central nervous system (CNS) through the release and action of chemical substances called neurotransmitters. For detailed description of the process of neurohumoral transmission  click here Neurotransmitters play a crucial role in transmitting signals from one neuron to another, allowing for the proper functioning of the CNS. There are several important neurotransmitters involved in neurohumoral transmission. Here are some examples: GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid): GABA is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS. It acts by binding to GABA receptors on postsynaptic neurons, causing an inhibitory effect and reducing neuronal excitability. Drugs that enhance GABAergic transmission, such as benzodiazepines, are used as sedatives, anxiolytics, and anticonvulsants. Glutamate: Glutamate is the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the CNS. It plays a key role in s